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#28
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Mike Burleson
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Sep 12, 2005 16:17 PDT
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Greetings! I hope you’ve had a great summer. For this fall edition of
Navy Review I’ve included several original articles, including The
Battle of Taranto, a bio of Chester Nimitz, as well as John Wayne in
STRANGE SEA TALES. Enjoy!
LEAD STORY
When Land Powers go to Sea
During the First Punic War, something out of the ordinary occurred when
a Land Power defeated a Sea Power at its own game. By using the
“corvus”, a spiked bridge which allowed the soldiers to quickly board
Carthaginian warships, the Romans transferred their superior land
tactics to sea. This was an anachronism of war, and rarely, if ever
occurred again. For the most part, the great land powers of history,
including France, Germany, and Russia, have taken Sea power for granted.
No greater example of contempt for the magnificent engines of naval
warfare is that of Napoleon and the French. After a mighty national
effort of building and commissioning the powerful ships of the line;
equipping them with trained crews and expensive ordinance, Napoleon
casually sacrificed them, along with Spanish warships, at the Battle of
Trafalgar in October 1805. His reasoning at the time seems sound, as his
more immediate threat was the coalition of armies from Austria, Prussia,
and Russia in the east, rather than the British across the channel. It
was only a decade later when the English finally raised an army to match
the French that Napoleon began to regret his misuse of Sea Power. Later
the United German nations saw the need for a fleet to match its vibrant
and expanding economy. Germany was the greatest land power on Earth, but
this wasn’t enough for the Kaiser, jealous of the rich colonial powers,
especially Britain. The reborn navy had little interest in matching
Britain ship for ship. Just enough was needed to pose a threat in the
North Sea and gamble that England would not risk major damage to its
superior fleet of dreadnaughts in a single battle. The plan was sound
enough, but at the Battle of Jutland on May 31, 1916, the German’s nerve
failed when they appeared to be winning. The Kaiser was as fearful of
losing his expensive toys as the British. The opportunity never
presented itself again. During the next World War, the German
battlefleet, such as it was, became a mere distraction to a Royal Navy
more concerned by the threat of the U-boat. The land power finally
brought about the end of the British Empire, but at terrible cost to its
own freedom. Throughout the Cold War the prostrated Germans were mere
pawns of the superpowers, with Russia on land and America at sea.
In the first decade after WW2, no sea power was able to match the US
Navy. With most Russian ports frozen in for long periods of the year,
the land power could do little to address this deficiency. Even in the
1960’s and 1970s, when the Soviet navy vastly increased its sub and
surface combatants, she was still basically a defensive force. The
Russians feared the attack carriers of the US Navy, and an amphibious
assault on its coasts, more than the pitifully small army, or even the
mighty bomber fleets of the Air Force.
The Soviet economy, as long predicted by Ronald Reagan, finally faltered
in the late 1980’s. Its hard won empire vanished almost overnight, and
an early victim was the navy. Rusting in various ports, some which no
longer belong to the motherland, the once vaunted battlefleet now poses
more of a threat to the environment, than to the free world.
*********
FACT: Before Pearl Harbor, legendary filmmaker John Ford spied on
Japanese merchant ships in Hawaii and Mexico on board his yacht ARANER.
NAVY NEWS
INTERNATIONAL NAVY REVIEW-On June 28 the world’s navies gathered in
Britain to commemorate one of history’s decisive sea fights: the Battle
of Trafalgar. An estimated 10,000 craft of all shapes and sizes
recreated the famous battle, which cost the life of Admiral Horatio
Nelson, and doomed Napoleon’s one chance of invading Britain. The
awesome assemblage of naval might included ships from 35 countries,
ranging from the 42,000 French aircraft carrier CHARLES DE GUALLE, to
yachts and pleasure craft. Other ships included the massive cruise ship
QUEEN ELIZABETH 2, the PRIDE OF BALTIMORE 2 (a replica of a Chesapeake
Bay schooner), the AMERIGO VESPUCCI (an Italian sailing training ship),
and the GRAND TURK (a Turkish sail vessel).
The Battle of Trafalgar occurred on October 21, 1805. Admiral Nelson
with 27 ships of the line defeated the combined French/Spanish fleet of
33 warships off cape Trafalgar. The climactic sea battle became tragic
when Nelson, on his flagship HMS VICTORY, was killed by a French sniper.
IRAQ NAVY RETURNS-Two years after being overwhelmed by the massive
Coalition naval might in 2003; the new Iraqi Navy is once again
protecting its territorial waters. As part of the Multi-National Force,
the tiny fleet is patrolling the busy ports of Umm Qasr and Khaur
Zubayr, vital lifelines to the fledgling democracy. The force currently
consists of 5 coastal patrol boats and radar equipped small craft. In
addition, 6 more patrol boats are under construction in Iraqi shipyards,
half which may be delivered by year’s end. Several tug boats are being
converted as “motherships” for the patrol craft.
When the force was reborn in 2003, personnel included 400 sailors and
200 naval infantry. An additional 200 infantrymen, trained by Iraqi
instructors, will soon join to guard the oil platforms.
THE NEW BROWN WATER NAVY- In a recent memorandum, outgoing navy Chief
Adm. Vern Clark called for the creation of a Brown Water Fleet of small
craft, to combat terrorism and other threats in littoral waters. Over 13
years after calling for such a force in its 1992 “From the Sea”
strategy, the Navy is finally coming around to the new warfare. The
brown water force will be reminiscent of the fame “swift boats” of the
Vietnam War. Plans are to form a riverene unit next year, with a
battalion of “naval infantry” also being established to help man the
vessels.
CHINA, RUSSIAN WARGAMES-In August history was made in the 8 day “Peace
Mission 2005” wargames, the first ever carried out jointly by China and
Russia. The combined maneuvers involved 10,000 military personnel plus
destroyers, submarines, and fighter planes from both nations.
China claims the games are taking place against “terrorism, separatism,
and extremism” which many consider is aimed at Taiwan. The mainland has
threatened to invade the island state if it declares independence. The
exercises took place off Pacific ports of both nations, and also
included a staged beach landing.
*********
HOW SHIPS ARE NAMED
Due to politics, this is not an exact science, but for the most part,
here is how US Navy vessels are generally named:
*Aircraft Carriers-prominent public officials, especially Presidents
(ABRAHAM LINCOLN, RONALD REAGAN)
*Amphibious Assault Ships- Famous naval vessels (WASP, HORNET)
*Destroyers-Navy & Marine personnel, Cabinet Secretaries, and naval
inventors ( FARRAGUT, ARLEIGH BURKE)
*Frigates-Navy, Marine, or Coast Guardsmen who have passed away (LEWIS
B. PULLER)
*Ballistic Missile Submarines-States (OHIO, GEORGIA)
Attack Submarines-Cities (LOS ANGELES, CHICAGO) or whatever (SEAWOLF,
JIMMY CARTER)
*********
FACT: Chinese Admiral Cheng Ho made seven naval expeditions between
1405-1433 to the Middle East and Africa, and some say to the America’s.
NAVY BIOGRAPHY
Chester Nimitz
The career of one of America’s greatest naval leaders almost came to an
abrupt end in the shallow, uncharted waters near Manila Bay. On a hot
July evening in 1908, a youthful Ensign Chester Nimitz managed to run
his first command, the destroyer DECATUR, hopelessly stuck in a mudbank.
Later at his court martial, Nimitz was found “neglect of duty” and
sentenced to a reprimand by the Commander US Naval Forces in the
Philippines. He was later “exiled” to the fledgling submarines service.
This was hardly a promising start for a future Chief of Naval
Operations, but he excelled in the assignment. Nimitz became something
of an expert in diesel engines and was jumped in rank to lieutenant,
senior grade. His court martial forgotten, Chester Nimitz set his course
for future greatness. He continued serving in submarines in Word War 1
and into the postwar period. In the 1920’s he attended the Naval War
College and served on the staff of the Commander in Chief, US Fleet. In
the 1930’s Nimitz commanded a sub division and later the cruiser AUGUSTA
in Asiatic waters. IN 1939 he led a task force and helped develop
refueling at sea, so vital for his fast carrier forces in the Pacific
War. That year, he was ordered to Washington as Chief of the Bureau of
Navigation. This position Nimitz considered a low point in his career,
though he was often in contact with those who could observe his
brilliance firsthand, including Admiral Ernest King and President
Roosevelt. In January 1941, he turned down command of the US Pacific
Fleet, considering himself too junior in rank. Instead, the position
went to Admiral Husband Kimmel, a fine and aggressive naval officer, who
nevertheless became scapegoat for the impending disaster at Pear Harbor.
A week after the Japanese attack on December 7, 1941, Nimitz was ordered
to the Pacific by President Roosevelt. This time he dared not object,
saying: “In time of war, one does not question an order”. It saddened
Nimitz to relieve his old friend Kimmel, and in a conciliatory gesture,
he kept most of the latter’s staff. The new Pacific Fleet commander also
recognized his mission to restore morale, as well as the Navy’s honor.
His wisest decision was to keep Kimmel’s intelligence officer, Commander
Edwin T. Layton, who would later contribute to the victory at Midway.
The next 4 years saw Nimitz leading a fight unprecedented in the Navy’s
history. The first stage included blunting the Japanese offensive in the
first 6 months of the war. At “Coral Sea”, Admiral Fletcher defeated the
enemies attempt to conquer the South Pacific. A month later, Nimitz sent
Fletcher and Admiral Raymond Spruance to foil Japanese designs on
“Midway Island”. The next phase included the first American offensive in
the Pacific at Guadalcanal, ably led by Marine General Archer
Vandegrift, who was supported initially by Admiral Ghormerly, then later
by the aggressive Admiral William “Bull” Halsey. In May 1944, the final
phase began: the awesome Central Pacific Campaign. Nimitz now had
control over giant carrier task forces and massive amphibious fleets,
totaling 3 million sailors and 8000 ships. This giant armada was led
alternately by Halsey and Spruance. Two enormous battles against the
Japanese Fleet were disappointing, first in the “Philippine Sea” in June
1944, and later in October at “Leyte Gulf”. In both cases the bulk of
the enemy forces managed to escape while suffering horrible attrition in
aircraft and trained pilots. More successful was Nimitz’s beloved
submarine force under Admiral Charles Lockwood, which sank more enemy
vessels than all other Pacific forces. By the time of the “Iwo Jima” and
“Okinawa” battles in 1945, his amphibious experts had perfected the art
of the beach landing. Naval leaders such as Kelly Turner and “Ping”
Wilkinson were ably supported by Marine Generals Holland Smith and Roy
Geiger. The last struggles for Iwo in February and Okinawa in April were
very costly to the fleet. Kamikaze aircraft did far more damage than any
other battle in the Pacific War. Yet the writing was on the wall for the
Japanese. After the atomic bombs were dropped in August, surrender terms
were signed on September 2 on the battleship Missouri. Nimitz was there
to garner the reward so deserved after 4 long years in the Pacific.
*********
FACT: The major naval power in 1400 was the city-state of Venice, with a
fleet of 3000 galleys.
SEA FIGHTS ON A SHOE STRING
Battle of Taranto
Few naval operations have been launched on such a “shoestring”, then to
garner such success, as the British carrier strike on Taranto Harbor
November 11-12, 1940. Actually this attack on the great Italian naval
base was contemplated at least twice before, first in 1935 after
Mussolini’s invasion of Abyssinia, then during the Munich crisis of
1938. The next year, a month before the start of the war, First Sea Lord
Sir Dudley Pound recalled these plans, and passed them on to his
successor in the Mediterranean Fleet, Admiral “ABC” Cunningham.
Cunningham was a brilliant and aggressive warrior in the tradition of
Nelson, and immediately went on the offensive despite the inadequacies
of his fleet. His forces at the start of the war consisted of 3 old
battleships built during the last conflict, along with the small and
archaic aircraft carrier HMS EAGLE. The EAGLE’s airwing consisted of
only 18 Fairey Swordfish biplanes, already obsolescent when introduced
in 1936. Known fondly as the “stringbag”, it could barely make 100 knots
fully loaded with bombs or a single 18 inch torpedo. What she lacked in
performance though, she made up for in ruggedness. When attacking, the
Swordfish was a hard target for AA gunners, who were usually trained to
deal with swift flying aircraft. Britain’s troubles in the Med
compounded with the surrender of France in June 1940. The naval balance
of power, at least on paper, swung to the Italians who possessed 2 new
battleships. VITTORIO VENETO and LITTORIO, each armed with 15 inch guns.
Mussolini also had 3 older modernized battle-wagons and over 200
cruisers, destroyers and submarines, as well as a large air force,
though no aircraft carriers.
In August Cunningham received reinforcement in the form of the new
carrier HMS ILLUSTRIOUS, 2 anti-aircraft cruisers, and the rebuilt
battleship HMS VALIANT. ILLUSTRIOUS could only carry 36 airplanes, but
she was fast, well armed and better yet, her hangars and flight deck
were armored. A very definite improvement on EAGLE! At the start of
planning for the air strike things seem to go awry. A fire on board
ILLUSTRIOUS destroyed 2 Swordfish and damaged 5 others. This caused a
delay in the strike from October 21, “Trafalgar Day”, to November 11.
Then, Cunningham’s only other carrier, EAGLE, was forced out of the
operation by a breakdown in her fuel system. Five of her precious
Swordfish were transferred to ILLUSTRIOUS, leaving a mere 24 planes for
a major air attack. “Operation Judgment” as the attack was called,
consisted of 2 strikes of 12 planes each, launched an hour apart. In
each strike, 6 planes were armed with torpedoes, the rest with flares
and bombs. The bomb carrying planes were there mainly as a diversion.
Their 250 lb. bombs were barely armor- piercing, often passing through a
vessel without exploding or causing very little damage when they did.
More hope rested with the 18 inch torpedoes which could explode on
contact or magnetically beneath the hull. Virtually the entire Italian
Fleet was at Taranto on November 11, including all 6 battleships. The
port consisted of an inner and outer harbor, protected by a
multi-layered defense. Air reconnaissance was supposed to provide early
warning of any attack, but would prove inadequate. Thirteen sound
listening posts ringed the harbor at strategic points. There were
batteries of AA cannon and machine guns, including floating batteries,
all backed up by searchlights. For the vessels themselves, besides their
own guns, nets and barrage balloons provided extra protection. Two
hours before the attack, the listening posts detected an RAF Sunderland
recon aircraft. The Italians became nervously aware that something was
up. More trouble plagued Cunningham’s Swordfish. Three crashed due to
contaminated fuel, leaving only 21 for the attack. A revised plan now
included strikes of 12 and 9 aircraft, still with 6 torpedo planes each.
The smaller flight was launched at 1950 hours on the night of November
11, and the last 12 an hour later. A warm welcome was in store for the
first wave, the Italians having been alerted by the Sunderland. The
alarm was sounded and the barrage opened up as the first Swordfish
headed for the battleships in the outer harbor. The first torpedo fired
ran true, exploding under CONTE DI CAVOUR. Two more fired at CAVOUR
missed, though exploded dangerously close to ANDREA DORIA. More
successful was the strike on LITTORIO, assaulted on both sides. Both
torpedoes connected violently damaging her steering gear and partially
flooding the massive dreadnaught. A third torpedo, fired by one of
EAGLE’s Swordfish exploded harmlessly near wounded LITTORIO. Meanwhile
the bombers were attacking the seaplane base, oil facilities as well as
the warships in the inner harbor. Then came the second wave. Another
plane was forced back with fuel problems, so only 5 torpedo aircraft
were left. LITTORIO was hit for a third time causing her to be grounded.
CAIO DUILO, unscathed in the first strike received a torpedo in her
starboard side. She too was grounded to save from foundering. Another
torpedo hit LITTORIO but failed to explode. An assault on VITTORIO
VENETO missed. The bombers went after the cruiser TRENTO. True to form,
a 250 lb. bomb passed through and failed to explode. Round 2 ended with
only 3 Swordfish lost. Three Italian capital ships were disabled, with
CAVOUR permanently out of the war. It was already early on the 12th and
Cunningham regretfully vetoed a third strike. The impact of a handful of
obsolete biplanes was far in proportion to the damage done. Italian
prestige in the Med was permanently damaged. The British Naval Air
Service proved the value of a few aircraft against the most awesome
weapons of the day, the battleship. This latter notion of aircraft
versus warship the navies of the world would take notice, especially the
Americans and Japanese.
*********
FACT: The first use of exploding shell at sea was by the Russians during
the Crimean War in 1853, against the Turkish Navy.
STRANGE SEA TALES
John Wayne Launches a Frigate
The launching of a naval vessel is a special event in the US Navy.
Dignitaries are invited and speeches are made, followed by a ceremonial
breaking of a champagne bottle which starts the ship sliding down the
ways. On one occasion though, it took the intervention of movie star and
American icon John Wayne for the ceremony to be a success. It happened
like this: on September 25, 1975, at Bath Maine, the Navy prepared to
launch its newest class of guided missile frigate USS OLIVER HAZARD
PERRY (FFG-7). The PERRY was of a new generation of sub-hunters, a total
of 50 eventually being constructed, with versions serving the navies of
Australia and Spain. To witness the proceedings, the Navy invited many
distinguished guests, including a much younger Secretary of Defense
Donald Rumsfeld, and legendary Hollywood star John Wayne. All seemed to
be ensuing as planned. The speeches were completed and as tradition
dictated, a lady crashed the ceremonial champagne against the hull as a
signal for the launch. Nothing happened. The shipbuilders were
confounded and the Navy embarrassed. Everything was tried to budge the
vessel, but nothing worked. It was becoming a public relation’s
nightmare! It was here that Wayne stepped up to save the day, as he had
pretended to do in countless films over the pass 40 years. Coolly
striding to the 3600 ton warship, the maverick actor gave PERRY a gentle
shove, probably in jest, and the giant vessel moved. Into the water
slipped the frigate to the great astonishment of all those present. This
is a true story. To coin a phrase “believe it of not”!
*********
FACT: The Continental Navy was disbanded in 1785, and not reestablished
again until 1794 when it became the US
Navy.
*********
SEA SITES
Sea Songs
http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/15299
Worlds Finest Navy
http://www.worldsfinestnavy.com/
Maritime Affairs
http://www.naval.ca/currentissues/
*********
Until next time, God Bless and remember the troops!
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